Legacy

The Edict of Milan, issued in 313 CE by Emperors Constantine I and Licinius, marked a turning point in religious history. By giving everyone the freedom to worship whichever god they choose, it put an official stop to the persecution of Christians. Most significantly, it recognized Christianity as a legitimate religion, allowing Christians to worship openly, build churches, and reclaim property that had been confiscated during earlier periods of repression. This edict was essential to the quick spread of Christianity and established the foundation for religious liberty in the Roman Empire. Historical significance The edict dramatically changed the status of Christianity. Before the Edict, Christianity was forbidden and Christians often faced persecution. The Edict of Milan officially legalized Christianity, allowing its followers to worship without fear of punishment. The edict ordered that property taken from Christians during earlier persecutions be returned. This was a major shift in imperial policy and marked the beginning of Christianity’s transformation into a dominant religion in the Roman Empire and later Europe, deeply influencing Western culture, art, politics, and law. Cause and consequence Before the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, Christianity was strictly forbidden and subject to severe persecution. Roman rulers insisted that people worship the traditional Pagan gods in order to secure divine protection during times of economic instability and military defeat. Emperor Diocletian began the most severe campaign against anyone who refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods in 303 CE, known as the Great Persecution. Mass executions and church destruction resulted from Christians’ refusal to worship any other deity than their own, which was viewed as treason. With Emperor Galerius’ Edict of Toleration in 311 CE, persecution started to lessen. A turning point came in 312 CE when Constantine I reportedly had a vision of the Christian symbol (Chi-Rho) before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge and credited his victory to the Christian God. He adopted tolerance as a means of unifying and stabilizing the empire in the face of growing instability and a rapidly increasing Christian population.With the Edict of Milan, Christians experienced a significant change in their freedom to construct churches, worship freely, and recover property that had been taken from them. It also allowed everyone to practice their religion freely, promoting tolerance and diversity in society. In the decades that followed, Christianity grew quickly, and in 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica, establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. By the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Christianity had been fully assimilated into Roman politics and culture, while pagan practices had gradually diminished. Continuity and change Roman politics had always been heavily influenced by religion, as evidenced by the reverence for traditional Roman gods and emperor worship. The Edict of Milan continued this tradition, but with Emperor Constantine I’s support, it shifted the focus to Christianity. Although the Edict encouraged tolerance, as Christianity grew in power, tensions between various religious groups, particularly Christians and pagans groups, increased. Previously forbidden and persecuted, Christianity was now lawfully recognized. It allowed Christians to own property, construct churches, and practice freely. For the first time in Roman history, everyone was legally allowed to worship the religion of their choice, marking a significant shift from earlier laws that favored Roman pagan gods and persecuted other beliefs. The Edict allowed the Christian Religion to become more organized, visible, and politically powerful, setting the stage for its future dominance in Europe. Historical perspective For those who lived in the Roman Empire in 313 CE, the Edict of Milan would have indicated a dramatic and unexpected shift in imperial policy. After years of cruel and violent persecution, the edict was viewed by Christians as a sign of divine favor and a miraculous change. Roman rulers Constantine and Licinius viewed the edict as a strategic step to stabilize a divided and diverse empire. They tried to gain control over Christians and lessen the turmoil caused by conflicts over religion by promoting religious tolerance. The edict also stated that all religions should be accepted, so it did not just help Christians. Given the growing influence of Christianity, the edict may have caused confusion or anxiety among traditional pagans. Historians view the Edict of Milan as a turning point in the evolution of religious freedom and tolerance. The ruins of the Emperor’s palace where Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, Mediolanum, Milan (Italy) Video

Roman roads are among the most impressive achievements of ancient engineering, forming the most advanced transportation system of their time. The Roman Empire was at its largest when Emperor Trajan died in 117 AD, spanning from the Atlantic Ocean to Mesopotamia, from modern-day Scotland to the Sahara and the Arabian Gulf. Over 400,000 kilometers of Roman roads were in place, of which about 80,000 kilometers were paved. Built primarily for military use, these roads connected distant provinces to the capital, giving rise to the famous saying, “All roads lead to Rome.” network of main Roman roads in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138) Historical significance From a historical significance perspective, the Roman roads were essential to the empire’s growth and stability. Roman roads were built with military effectiveness in mind; they had wide, straight paths, sturdy all-weather surfaces, and way stations spaced frequently. . These characteristics allowed Rome to swiftly send reinforcements, which sped up troop movements during conquests and deterred rebellion. The roads also accelerated trade by improving the efficiency of goods transportation, resulting in economic prosperity throughout the empire. The building of these roads strengthened the unity among the various regions of the empire. Roman roads were built to last, and many of them can still be seen today. Cause and consequences The construction of Roman roads was primarily motivated by military necessity for defense, conquest, and control. The need for effective communication, administration, and trade within the expanding empire added to the reasons for building Roman roads. The result was a vast network that allowed Roman legions to move quickly and efficiently while maintaining control over every area of the empire. In the event of an emergency, even the most remote regions of the Roman world could expect to be swiftly supplied or reinforced, reducing the need for large and expensive garrison units at frontier outposts. Roads were essential to trade because they connected cities and encouraged urban growth along their routes. The Roman roads helped spreading Roman culture and language and fostering assimilation and loyalty among conquered peoples. Continuity and change Reliable roads were uncommon before the Romans. Although roads themselves were not Roman invention, the Romans revolutionized their design, construction, and use. Compared to earlier methods, Roman road-building techniques were remarkably more advanced. Roads were built in layers to guarantee strength, durability, flatness, and excellent drainage, enabling year-round use. The Romans built straight roads and constructed bridges or tunnels to overcome natural obstacles. For travelers and merchants, amenities like roadside inns, post houses, and mile markers increased comfort and dependability. Roman inventions drastically changed the longevity and design of roads, establishing new standards for infrastructure that have impacted contemporary systems. Many Roman roads remained in use for centuries, and in some regions of the Middle East and Europe, some of the original routes serve as the basis for contemporary road networks. Historical perspective For those living within the Empire, roads were not just a useful infrastructure; they were powerful symbols of imperial authority and control. As the Romans expanded their empire, they constructed roads that connected distant regions, from Britain in the west to Syria in the east, allowing them to be easily integrated into the larger imperial network. Roman roads represent early globalization as they fostered cross-cultural interaction, which helped ideas, innovations, and customs to spread throughout the Empire and contribute to a shared yet diverse Roman cultural identity. Gallery Video

The Law of the Twelve Tables, which originated in 451-450 BCE during the Roman Republic, is the oldest codification of Roman law. To ensure that every Roman citizen could see them and understand their legal rights and obligations, these laws were written on twelve bronze tablets and put on public display in the Roman Forum. Before their creation, legal decisions were typically controlled by the upper class—the patricians—leaving lower-class plebeians vulnerable to inconsistent and unfair treatment. The Twelve Tables established specific rules on matters such as trial procedures, debt repayment, legal representation, the authority of the male head of the household (paterfamilias), inheritance and land ownership, theft and assault, marriage and divorce, and others. Historical significance In addition to being the first written codification of Roman law, the Law of the Twelve Tables represented a revolution in transparency by making the laws publicly visible. Because the law was applied equally to both patricians and plebeians, it helped to lessen the inequality in legal power. Although there were still social divisions, this change was significant because it moved society from arbitrary rule to the rule of law, which is essential for societies moving from monarchy to republic. This codification represents a significant moment in Roman legal history, establishing the foundation for future legal systems and reforms.   Cause and consequences Following King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus’s expulsion in 509 BCE, Rome progressively became a republic. The law was one of the main problems; it was unwritten and controlled by priests or the wealthy, making it unavailable to the general public. Frustration and growing tensions between patricians and plebeians led to the creation of a board of ten officials, known as the decemviri (“ten men”), who replaced all Roman magistrates in 451 BCE. The first decemvirate successfully organized the laws into ten “tables.” A new decemvirate was elected to complete the work, but it soon became tyrannical, seizing absolute power in Rome. The decemviri’s actions infuriated the Roman population and the Senate, but they were unable to overthrow them. The pivotal moment occurred when prominent decemvir Appius Claudius misused his position of authority to take Verginia, a young plebeian woman. Seeing no possibility of justice, her father decided to kill her instead of allowing her to end up in Appius’s hands. This tragic event was the final straw, prompting the plebeians to protest and organize a mass exodus from the city until their demands for reform were met. This is known as the Second Secession of the Plebs. The decemviri were overthrown, the law was changed, and two additional tables were added, granting significant rights and protections to the plebeians. Continuity and change Before the Roman Empire, laws were mostly founded on centuries-old, unwritten traditions that were frequently enforced by the aristocracy. With the creation of the Twelve Tables, laws were first codified and presented in public, marking a significant turning point in Roman history. This codification created a lasting tradition of written law by increasing legal transparency and beginning to transfer some power to the general populace, especially the plebeians. Over time, Roman law evolved and expanded in complexity, eventually culminating in the Corpus Juris Civilis under Emperor Justinian in the 6th century CE. Key principles from the Twelve Tables, like property rights, contracts, and trial procedures, shaped Roman rule for centuries and still influence modern legal systems in Europe and Latin America. Historical Perspective For the plebeians in the fifth century BCE, the Law of the Twelve Tables was a major victory in their struggle for rights and protection. The Twelve Tables allowed plebeians to defend themselves in court, demand fair trials, and understand their rights. It symbolized progress and justice, and offered protection against elite abuse. To patricians, it seemed like a necessary concession to preserve social order, maintain peace, and prevent rebellion. From a modern viewpoint, historians recognize the Twelve Tables as a foundational moment in the development of the rule of law. While some of the laws may now seem harsh or outdated (e.g., harsh punishments, patriarchal norms), they reflected the values and social structures of early Roman society. Video