Milica

The Edict of Milan (313 CE)

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The Edict of Milan, issued in 313 CE by Emperors Constantine I and Licinius, marked a turning point in religious history. By giving everyone the freedom to worship whichever god they choose, it put an official stop to the persecution of Christians. Most significantly, it recognized Christianity as a legitimate religion, allowing Christians to worship openly, build churches, and reclaim property that had been confiscated during earlier periods of repression. This edict was essential to the quick spread of Christianity and established the foundation for religious liberty in the Roman Empire. Historical significance The edict dramatically changed the status of Christianity. Before the Edict, Christianity was forbidden and Christians often faced persecution. The Edict of Milan officially legalized Christianity, allowing its followers to worship without fear of punishment. The edict ordered that property taken from Christians during earlier persecutions be returned. This was a major shift in imperial policy and marked the beginning of Christianity’s transformation into a dominant religion in the Roman Empire and later Europe, deeply influencing Western culture, art, politics, and law. Cause and consequence Before the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, Christianity was strictly forbidden and subject to severe persecution. Roman rulers insisted that people worship the traditional Pagan gods in order to secure divine protection during times of economic instability and military defeat. Emperor Diocletian began the most severe campaign against anyone who refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods in 303 CE, known as the Great Persecution. Mass executions and church destruction resulted from Christians’ refusal to worship any other deity than their own, which was viewed as treason. With Emperor Galerius’ Edict of Toleration in 311 CE, persecution started to lessen. A turning point came in 312 CE when Constantine I reportedly had a vision of the Christian symbol (Chi-Rho) before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge and credited his victory to the Christian God. He adopted tolerance as a means of unifying and stabilizing the empire in the face of growing instability and a rapidly increasing Christian population.With the Edict of Milan, Christians experienced a significant change in their freedom to construct churches, worship freely, and recover property that had been taken from them. It also allowed everyone to practice their religion freely, promoting tolerance and diversity in society. In the decades that followed, Christianity grew quickly, and in 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica, establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. By the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Christianity had been fully assimilated into Roman politics and culture, while pagan practices had gradually diminished. Continuity and change Roman politics had always been heavily influenced by religion, as evidenced by the reverence for traditional Roman gods and emperor worship. The Edict of Milan continued this tradition, but with Emperor Constantine I’s support, it shifted the focus to Christianity. Although the Edict encouraged tolerance, as Christianity grew in power, tensions between various religious groups, particularly Christians and pagans groups, increased. Previously forbidden and persecuted, Christianity was now lawfully recognized. It allowed Christians to own property, construct churches, and practice freely. For the first time in Roman history, everyone was legally allowed to worship the religion of their choice, marking a significant shift from earlier laws that favored Roman pagan gods and persecuted other beliefs. The Edict allowed the Christian Religion to become more organized, visible, and politically powerful, setting the stage for its future dominance in Europe. Historical perspective For those who lived in the Roman Empire in 313 CE, the Edict of Milan would have indicated a dramatic and unexpected shift in imperial policy. After years of cruel and violent persecution, the edict was viewed by Christians as a sign of divine favor and a miraculous change. Roman rulers Constantine and Licinius viewed the edict as a strategic step to stabilize a divided and diverse empire. They tried to gain control over Christians and lessen the turmoil caused by conflicts over religion by promoting religious tolerance. The edict also stated that all religions should be accepted, so it did not just help Christians. Given the growing influence of Christianity, the edict may have caused confusion or anxiety among traditional pagans. Historians view the Edict of Milan as a turning point in the evolution of religious freedom and tolerance. The ruins of the Emperor’s palace where Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, Mediolanum, Milan (Italy) Video

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Roman Roads

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Roman roads are among the most impressive achievements of ancient engineering, forming the most advanced transportation system of their time. The Roman Empire was at its largest when Emperor Trajan died in 117 AD, spanning from the Atlantic Ocean to Mesopotamia, from modern-day Scotland to the Sahara and the Arabian Gulf. Over 400,000 kilometers of Roman roads were in place, of which about 80,000 kilometers were paved. Built primarily for military use, these roads connected distant provinces to the capital, giving rise to the famous saying, “All roads lead to Rome.” network of main Roman roads in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138) Historical significance From a historical significance perspective, the Roman roads were essential to the empire’s growth and stability. Roman roads were built with military effectiveness in mind; they had wide, straight paths, sturdy all-weather surfaces, and way stations spaced frequently. . These characteristics allowed Rome to swiftly send reinforcements, which sped up troop movements during conquests and deterred rebellion. The roads also accelerated trade by improving the efficiency of goods transportation, resulting in economic prosperity throughout the empire. The building of these roads strengthened the unity among the various regions of the empire. Roman roads were built to last, and many of them can still be seen today. Cause and consequences The construction of Roman roads was primarily motivated by military necessity for defense, conquest, and control. The need for effective communication, administration, and trade within the expanding empire added to the reasons for building Roman roads. The result was a vast network that allowed Roman legions to move quickly and efficiently while maintaining control over every area of the empire. In the event of an emergency, even the most remote regions of the Roman world could expect to be swiftly supplied or reinforced, reducing the need for large and expensive garrison units at frontier outposts. Roads were essential to trade because they connected cities and encouraged urban growth along their routes. The Roman roads helped spreading Roman culture and language and fostering assimilation and loyalty among conquered peoples. Continuity and change Reliable roads were uncommon before the Romans. Although roads themselves were not Roman invention, the Romans revolutionized their design, construction, and use. Compared to earlier methods, Roman road-building techniques were remarkably more advanced. Roads were built in layers to guarantee strength, durability, flatness, and excellent drainage, enabling year-round use. The Romans built straight roads and constructed bridges or tunnels to overcome natural obstacles. For travelers and merchants, amenities like roadside inns, post houses, and mile markers increased comfort and dependability. Roman inventions drastically changed the longevity and design of roads, establishing new standards for infrastructure that have impacted contemporary systems. Many Roman roads remained in use for centuries, and in some regions of the Middle East and Europe, some of the original routes serve as the basis for contemporary road networks. Historical perspective For those living within the Empire, roads were not just a useful infrastructure; they were powerful symbols of imperial authority and control. As the Romans expanded their empire, they constructed roads that connected distant regions, from Britain in the west to Syria in the east, allowing them to be easily integrated into the larger imperial network. Roman roads represent early globalization as they fostered cross-cultural interaction, which helped ideas, innovations, and customs to spread throughout the Empire and contribute to a shared yet diverse Roman cultural identity. Gallery Video

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Law of the Twelve Tables

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The Law of the Twelve Tables, which originated in 451-450 BCE during the Roman Republic, is the oldest codification of Roman law. To ensure that every Roman citizen could see them and understand their legal rights and obligations, these laws were written on twelve bronze tablets and put on public display in the Roman Forum. Before their creation, legal decisions were typically controlled by the upper class—the patricians—leaving lower-class plebeians vulnerable to inconsistent and unfair treatment. The Twelve Tables established specific rules on matters such as trial procedures, debt repayment, legal representation, the authority of the male head of the household (paterfamilias), inheritance and land ownership, theft and assault, marriage and divorce, and others. Historical significance In addition to being the first written codification of Roman law, the Law of the Twelve Tables represented a revolution in transparency by making the laws publicly visible. Because the law was applied equally to both patricians and plebeians, it helped to lessen the inequality in legal power. Although there were still social divisions, this change was significant because it moved society from arbitrary rule to the rule of law, which is essential for societies moving from monarchy to republic. This codification represents a significant moment in Roman legal history, establishing the foundation for future legal systems and reforms.   Cause and consequences Following King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus’s expulsion in 509 BCE, Rome progressively became a republic. The law was one of the main problems; it was unwritten and controlled by priests or the wealthy, making it unavailable to the general public. Frustration and growing tensions between patricians and plebeians led to the creation of a board of ten officials, known as the decemviri (“ten men”), who replaced all Roman magistrates in 451 BCE. The first decemvirate successfully organized the laws into ten “tables.” A new decemvirate was elected to complete the work, but it soon became tyrannical, seizing absolute power in Rome. The decemviri’s actions infuriated the Roman population and the Senate, but they were unable to overthrow them. The pivotal moment occurred when prominent decemvir Appius Claudius misused his position of authority to take Verginia, a young plebeian woman. Seeing no possibility of justice, her father decided to kill her instead of allowing her to end up in Appius’s hands. This tragic event was the final straw, prompting the plebeians to protest and organize a mass exodus from the city until their demands for reform were met. This is known as the Second Secession of the Plebs. The decemviri were overthrown, the law was changed, and two additional tables were added, granting significant rights and protections to the plebeians. Continuity and change Before the Roman Empire, laws were mostly founded on centuries-old, unwritten traditions that were frequently enforced by the aristocracy. With the creation of the Twelve Tables, laws were first codified and presented in public, marking a significant turning point in Roman history. This codification created a lasting tradition of written law by increasing legal transparency and beginning to transfer some power to the general populace, especially the plebeians. Over time, Roman law evolved and expanded in complexity, eventually culminating in the Corpus Juris Civilis under Emperor Justinian in the 6th century CE. Key principles from the Twelve Tables, like property rights, contracts, and trial procedures, shaped Roman rule for centuries and still influence modern legal systems in Europe and Latin America. Historical Perspective For the plebeians in the fifth century BCE, the Law of the Twelve Tables was a major victory in their struggle for rights and protection. The Twelve Tables allowed plebeians to defend themselves in court, demand fair trials, and understand their rights. It symbolized progress and justice, and offered protection against elite abuse. To patricians, it seemed like a necessary concession to preserve social order, maintain peace, and prevent rebellion. From a modern viewpoint, historians recognize the Twelve Tables as a foundational moment in the development of the rule of law. While some of the laws may now seem harsh or outdated (e.g., harsh punishments, patriarchal norms), they reflected the values and social structures of early Roman society. Video

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Hadrian’s Wall (122 CE)

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Hadrian’s Wall stretches from the east to the west coast of northern Britain, spanning approximately 73 miles (118 kilometers). During his visit to Britain in 122 CE, Emperor Hadrian ordered the construction of the wall. It served both to control movement and to defend against invasions by northern tribes, while also demonstrating Roman authority and power. The wall was built using a combination of stone and turf, with milecastles placed every Roman mile, and additional turrets and forts strategically positioned. A deep ditch ran alongside the wall, serving as an extra defensive barrier. A map illustrating the span, structure, and context of the 73 miles (118 km) Hadrian’s Wall Connection to the Decline of the Roman Empire  Hadrian, unlike his predecessor Trajan, focused on securing and stabilizing Rome’s existing borders instead of expanding the empire. Upon becoming emperor in 117 CE, he faced increasing challenges in protecting the empire’s vast frontiers. The construction of Hadrian’s Wall was a response to these challenges, signaling a shift from expansion to defense and stability. By the late 4th century, barbarian invasions, economic decline, and internal instability stretched Rome’s defenses thin, weakening its control over Britain. As a result, by 410 CE, the Roman administration and legions withdrew from Britain, marking the decline of Roman authority in the western provinces. Continuity and Change Hadrian’s Wall continued the Roman tradition of securing the empire’s borders. Earlier emperors, such as Augustus, established boundaries using natural landmarks like major rivers, although these frontiers were not yet defined by continuous walls or fortified lines. Since Britain lacked such natural borders, Hadrian’s Wall was constructed to separate the “civilized” Roman colony from the “barbaric” tribes of the Picts to the north (modern-day Scotland). It’s the most heavily fortified border anywhere in the Roman Empire. Over time, Hadrian’s Wall became a vital part of the Roman Empire’s frontier system, marking its northernmost boundary. At its height in the 2nd-century CE, this defensive network extended over 5,000 kilometers and included key segments such as the Limes Germanicus and the Limes Tripolitanus. Positive or Negative Changes/Continuities? The wall was a relatively positive development for the Roman Empire, as it helped strengthen control over the region and provided a clear boundary to protect Roman Britain from northern incursions. It also served as a powerful visual symbol of the empire’s commitment to maintaining its authority in the area. On the negative side, the construction of Hadrian’s Wall also symbolized the growing need to defend Roman territory, which suggests that the benefits of imperial expansion were decreasing.     Rate of Change The changes brought by Hadrian’s Wall were slow. The construction of the wall itself took several years, while the Roman military tactics evolved from offensive conquest to strategic defense and consolidation over several decades. Turning Point: Hadrian’s Wall can be considered a turning point in history as it marked a shift from Roman expansionism to a more consolidating approach, signaling the beginning of a period of gradual retreat and decline for the Roman Empire. Video

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The Edict of Diocletian on Maximum Prices (301 CE)

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The Edict on Maximum Prices, issued by Emperor Diocletian in 301 CE, was one of the most ambitious economic measures in Roman history. It aimed to control soaring inflation and stabilize the Roman economy. The law sets maximum price limits for more than 1.200 products, raw materials, labour and services, transport, animals and even slaves. It was inscribed on stone tablets and distributed throughout the empire. Violators faced severe punishments, including the possibility of execution.   Connection to the Decline of the Roman Empire The Edict of Maximum Prices aimed for economic stabilization but instead deepened existing economic issues. The Edict led to market shortages since merchants declined to sell their goods at the enforced low prices, which caused both scarcity and economic stagnation rather than stabilizing prices. The empire’s inability to compensate its soldiers resulted in diminished state power and undermined public confidence in the government. The enforcement of set prices created corruption and illegal trading networks while restrictions on wages caused workers to leave their jobs, making labor shortages more severe   Continuity and change The Edict of Maximum Prices demonstrated Rome’s economic interventionism as a continuation. Rome had a long history of state control over economic affairs, such as the Annona system, a state-controlled grain supply system, which included measures to regulate prices, prevent hoarding, and ensure fair distribution. The principal reason for the official overvaluation of the currency, of course, was to provide the wherewithal to support the large army and massive bureaucracy. Roman elites traditionally resisted substantial economic reforms and focused on temporary fixes through tax hikes and currency debasement. The Edict marked a shift toward harsher economic policies, enforcing rigid price controls and severe penalties. Positive and negative consequences The enforcement of the Edict of Maximum Prices brought mostly negative consequences because it failed to stop inflation while making shortages more severe. It further eroded trust in the government and revealed its failure to handle the crisis. The desperation of Rome’s leaders was evident because they chose extreme actions to postpone their downfall instead of tackling the fundamental problems.   How Rapid Were These Changes? For decades, the Roman economy steadily declined due to persistent inflation, heavy taxation, and widespread corruption. The Crisis of the Third Century played a major role in the collapse of the empire’s economy by causing widespread disruption. Economic difficulties that were once localized and manageable had, by 301 CE, spread across the entire empire and became extremely difficult to reverse. Although Rome did not fall immediately, the economic turmoil of the late third and early fourth centuries marked a decisive turning point toward irreversible decline.   A turning point While price-fixing was not new, the Edict of Maximum Prices marked an unprecedented level of state intervention, signaling that Rome’s problems had reached a critical point. The Edict of Maximum Prices ultimately failed as an authoritarian attempt to curb inflation, and, along with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, a system created by Diocletian in which four rulers shared power, it led to more chaos and decline in the empire. Video

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Arch of Constantine, Rome (315 CE)

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The Arch of Constantine is a triumphal arch constructed near the Colosseum in Rome, under the orders of Emperor Constantine I. The construction of the Arch of Constantine honored Constantine’s triumph against Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 CE). Standing at about 21 meters tall, this triumphal arch represents one of the largest surviving Roman arches from antiquity. The construction of the Arch of Constantine included newly sculpted elements and spolia, (which consisted of reliefs and statues taken from older monuments dedicated to Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius). Connection to the Decline of Roman Civilization By the 4th century, Rome was no longer expanding, and it was instead consumed by internal power struggles, particularly during the Crisis of the Third Century. Constantine’s victory over Maxentius was part of a series of civil wars that weakened the empire. The use of spolia in the Arch of Constantine reflects how Rome, facing economic and cultural decline, increasingly relied on the legacy of its past rather than creating new artistic achievements. Additionally, the arch celebrates Constantine’s conversion to Christianity, which marked a major shift away from traditional Roman religious customs that challenged the emperor’s divine status and weakened the polytheistic state structure. Continuity vs. Change The arch celebrates Constantine’s victory, similar to those of previous emperors, but it commemorates a civil war victory rather than the conquest of foreign territory. The use of spolia, including sculptures from the Arch of Trajan and the Arch of Hadrian, both honored tradition and helped legitimize Constantine’s rule by linking him to past emperors. This tactic positioned Constantine as the rightful successor to Rome’s greatest leaders, known for their military success and effective governance. The monument signifies the growing influence of Christianity in the empire, as reflected in the phrase “instinctu divinitatis” (“by inspiration of the divine”). The transformation initiated by Constantine ultimately transformed Roman culture, religion, and governance in deep and meaningful ways.   Positive or Negative Changes? Constantine’s leadership restored stability across the Roman Empire, and the arch commemorating his victory stood as a powerful symbol of renewed strength after years of internal conflict, civil war, and the turmoil of the Crisis of the Third Century and the collapse of the Tetrarchy. This message is reinforced through the arch’s triple structure and rich iconography, which emphasize Constantine’s supreme power. However, the emphasis on personal rule and the growing centralization of power weakened the traditional republican values of the Roman Empire. Despite his implementation of military and economic reforms, the empire persisted in its economic decline. The religious transformation from traditional Roman polytheism to Christianity during Constantine’s rule led to increased divisions due to resulting religious tensions.   Rate of Change The Arch of Constantine is a monument built to celebrate a military victory and is often associated with the rise of Christianity. However, its visual and symbolic features remain firmly rooted in Rome’s pagan past, reflecting Constantine’s careful navigation between longstanding traditions and emerging faith. The changes represented by the Arch of Constantine unfolded gradually. The transition toward Christianity and the subsequent shift of power to the East, marked by the establishment of Constantinople as the new Christian capital, generated new conflicts and challenges. A Turning Point in History The Arch of Constantine celebrates a victory attributed to the Christian God, a turning point in Roman history. Constantine’s conversion and the Edict of Milan (313 CE) marked a major shift in the Roman religious and political identity. Constantine’s rise paved the way for the eventual split of the empire into Eastern and Western halves, and the eventual fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE. Video

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Lost Words of Trajan?

Lost decree? /

Emperor Trajan’s victory at the Battle of Sarmizegetusa in 102 AD became the critical moment that changed the course of the First Dacian War. Trajan’s leadership and tactical genius combined with the disciplined strength of the Roman legions led to the defeat of King Decebalus’ Dacian forces. The fall of Sarmizegetusa as a major defensive stronghold allowed Dacia’s annexation by the Roman Empire.  Following his triumph, Trajan could issue a decree such as the one below, outlining the expectations for the Dacian people as they integrate into Roman civilization and fulfill their duties under Roman rule. Trajan Victory Decree to the Dacians ( A Historical Reimagining) Gallery Below are images of significant artifacts illustrating Trajan’s war with the Dacians. The Dacian Wars from 101 to 102 AD and 105 to 106 AD are thoroughly documented visually through Trajan’s Column located in Rome. The column features a bas-relief spiral design that illustrates crucial events from Trajan’s military campaigns, including battles, Roman engineering feats, and interactions with Dacians. Left: the personification of the Danube watches the Romans cross a pontoon bridge at the start of the war.  Right: The Danube reclines while holding the prow of a ship Scene XXIV Battle of Tapae (AD 101). Jupiter looks over the battlefield as the Romans turn the tide  Videos about Dacian wars

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Colosseum

The most significant /

The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, was the largest amphitheater of ancient Rome, built between 72 and 80 CE. It could hold approximately 50,000 spectators and host various public spectacles, including gladiatorial battles, wild animal hunts, and even staged naval battles. More than just a venue for entertainment, the Colosseum played a crucial role in Roman culture, politics, and social life. As a gathering place for people from all social classes, the Colosseum reinforced the Roman values of courage, strength, and discipline. It also served as a political tool, helping emperors maintain control over their vast empire by providing grand spectacles that kept the public engaged. These events fostered a sense of unity while reinforcing the social hierarchy. However, the Colosseum also had a darker side as over 400,000 gladiators, prisoners, and slaves are estimated to have died in its arena. The Colosseum’s impact has endured for nearly 2,000 years. Its architectural and engineering innovations have inspired and continue to influence the design of stadiums and arenas worldwide. Despite centuries of damage from natural disasters and looting, significant parts of the structure still stand today, attracting millions of visitors and preserving the history and culture of ancient Rome. Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09meiYkTsBo

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Roman Aqueducts

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The Roman aqueducts were an advanced water supply system that used a vast network of pipes, tunnels, bridges, and canals to transport fresh water from distant sources, such as lakes or springs, to densely populated areas by gravity. The first aqueduct was built in 312 BCE, and the Romans constructed hundreds more across their empire to sustain its growing population. They transformed urban living by reducing reliance on local wells, which were often contaminated. These systems supplied a reliable flow of clean water, which was used for drinking, gardening, milling, and farming, and to supply hundreds of public fountains. They also supplied grand public bathhouses, enhancing the Roman society’s quality of life and social interactions. The Roman aqueducts improved public health, and enabled better sanitation, contributing to the empire’s prosperity. Even after Rome’s fall, many aqueducts remained in use for centuries. Their innovative engineering set the foundation for modern water systems, emphasizing the ongoing need for sustainable solutions in expanding cities. Today, their preserved sections can be found across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, showcasing their lasting impact. Video

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Julian Calendar

The most significant /

The Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BCE and adopted in 45 BCE, replaced the inaccurate lunar-based Roman calendar with a solar-based system. Used in Europe for over 1,600 years, it was replaced by the Gregorian calendar in 1582. By providing a more reliable way to measure time, the Julian calendar improved agricultural planning, religious events, and government administration. Its leap-year system was a key advancement, making timekeeping more predictable and accurate. Although slightly inaccurate, the Julian calendar laid the foundation for modern timekeeping. Its structure influenced global history. The calendar became the standard across the Roman Empire and remained in use for centuries. The transition to the Gregorian calendar was gradual, with some countries keeping the Julian system into the 20th century and some Eastern Orthodox Churches still using it for liturgical events. Video

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